Apa Style Reference

When writing a dissertation or thesis, your instructor probably will require you to follow one of two popular style formats for your paper, APA Style or MLA Style. Although both formats are similar, they do have subtle differences that you'll need to know.

Generally, you select the style to follow based on the subject matter of the paper you're writing. Each style treats the formatting of the paper a little differently to meet the citation needs for the subject matter.

I. CHOOSING YOUR STYLE

For the most part, your instructor will select the style of formatting that you'll use for your paper. If you have a choice, however, you can follow these suggestions for deciding which style to use.

APA STYLE.

Use APA Style for subjects related to the social sciences, such as business, criminal justice, economics, law, and medical subjects, including nursing and psychology. The American Psychological Association created the APA Style, and you can visit apastyle (dot) org on the Internet to find more information on APA Style. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is the full listing of APA Style guidelines and APA formatting rules.

MLA STYLE.

Use MLA Style for subjects related to the humanities and liberal arts, such as literature, mass communications, and media studies. The Modern Language Association oversees the development of MLA Style, and you can visit mla(dot)org on the Internet for more information. For undergraduate students, use the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (sometimes shortened to MLA Handbook) as the guide to following MLA Style. For graduate students and professionals, use the MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing (sometimes shortened to MLA Style Manual) to find official rules and guidelines for MLA Style.

II. THE DIFFERENCES

If you still are not sure which style you should use with your paper, here are some formatting differences between APA Style and MLA Style. Choose the style that will allow you to format your paper and deliver the information to your readers in the most efficient manner.

ABSTRACT.

This difference in this category is pretty obvious: APA Style requires an abstract page, while MLA Style does not. An abstract is a short summary of your paper.

IN-TEXT CITATIONS.

With both styles, use the last name of the author(s) in any in-text citation. With APA Style, you also include the year of publication. With MLA Style, you include the page number of the information you cited along with the name of the author(s), but you do not include the year of publication. By including the year of publication, APA Style gives the readers a chance to decide how much relevancy to place on a particular source, based on its age. With the subject matter used with MLA Style, however, the age of the sourced material usually isn't as vital to its relevancy, so MLA Style doesn't list the year of publication.

With both styles, remember that the in-text citation is simply a method of ensuring that your readers can easily find the full citation in the reference list or works cited page at the end of the paper. You don't need extensive information about the source for an in-text citation.

PAGE NUMBERS.

With both styles, the page number appears in the upper right corner of each page, but each style has different additional information. With APA Style, you must include a running title to the left of the page number on each page. A running title is a two- or three-word summary of the title of your paper. With MLA Style, include the author's name to the left of the page number on each page.

REFERENCE LIST FORMATTING.

With both APA Style and MLA Style, when listing each of your sources on the reference list page (APA Style) or works cited page (MLA Style), use the full last name of the author(s) in each entry. In APA Style, you also list only the initials of the first and middle name of each author. In MLA Style, you spell out the entire first and middle name of each author. (Middle name information is optional.)

TITLE PAGE.

APA Style requires a title page, but MLA Style does not. If you choose to skip the title page with MLA Style, simply include your name, your instructor's name, your course, and the full date in the upper left-hand corner of the first page. Then center the title on the page, followed by your main text.

You'll also find several subtle differences between APA Style and MLA Style in capitalization and punctuation rules. However, those differences are too numerous to list here, and they probably won't affect your decision on which style to use with your paper.

The APA Style rules for formatting a thesis or dissertation are specific, ranging from the proper font size to the proper margins to the type of paper you should use. Here are 14 formatting tips you should follow when creating your paper.

Tip 1: ABBREVIATIONS. Try to avoid using abbreviations in your paper. However, if you have an abbreviation that's commonly accepted in language and appears in the dictionary, such as AIDS, you may use it.

Tip 2: ALIGNMENT. Always align the text flush left. Do not use the "full justify" setting on your word processor, which spreads the text and aligns it both left and right.

Tip 3: FONT. If using a word processor, stick with a serif font, such as Times New Roman. Use text in a 10- or 12-point size.

Tip 4: HYPHENATION. Do not break and hyphenate words at the end of a line. Instead, leave one line a little short and place the entire word on the next line, or go a couple of characters beyond the right margin to fit the entire word on the line.

Tip 5: INDENTIONS. Indent paragraphs within the main text of the paper one-half inch, if using a computer word processor, or five to seven spaces, if using a typewriter. However, do not indent in the following special circumstances: The abstract, block quotations, figure captions, notes, reference list entries, table titles, and titles or headings.

Tip 6: MARGINS. Use 1-inch margins on all four sides of the paper: Top, bottom, right, and left. Old rules called for some 1.5-inch margins, but those rules no longer are valid.

Tip 7: PAGE NUMBERING. Number almost every page in the paper, including the title page. Place the number in the upper-right corner of the page, and use only Arabic numerals. Place the number "1" on the title page and the number "2" on the abstract page. The main text should start on page number "3". Do not number pages that contain only figures or artwork.

Tip 8: PAPER TYPE. Use standard white, 20-pound bond paper that measures 8.5-by-11 inches. If using a computer, use an inkjet or laser printer to print the paper; if you must use a tractor-feed printer, be sure to remove the pinhole borders from the edges of the paper.

Tip 9: PARENTHESES. Try to limit parentheses to set apart elements that are structurally independent, such as when listing a figure or illustration related to a sentence. If you're enclosing a complete sentence in parentheses, place the punctuation inside the parentheses. If you're enclosing only part of a sentence inside parentheses, leave the punctuation outside the parentheses.

Tip 10: PUNCTUATION. In most instances, use one space after all typical punctuation marks, such as periods, commas, colons, and semicolons. Three exceptions exist to this rule. First, do not use a space after periods inside an abbreviation, such as when using U.S. for United States. Second, do not use a space after a colon in a ratio, such as 3:2. Third, some instructors prefer the old rule of using two spaces after periods that end sentences. If you're using Courier or another mono-space font, APA Style does allow two spaces between sentences, although one is preferred.

Tip 11: SHORT TITLE. A Short Title, which is a two- or three-word summary of the main title, should appear on every page in the top right corner, other than pages that contain only figures or artwork. The Short Title should appear just to the left of the page number.

Tip 12: SLASH MARK. Avoid using slash marks in your paper. For example, instead of writing "red and/or green," write "red, green, or both."

Tip 13: SPACING. Use double spacing throughout the entire paper, unless your instructor specifically requests single spacing in certain circumstances, such as with block quotations.

Tip 14: TITLE. Center the title on the title page, using a mixture of uppercase and lowercase letters. If the title is long enough to require a second line, double space between the lines. After the title, the student's name should appear, followed by the institution for which the paper is being written. If you don't have an institution to include, you may substitute the city and state of the author of the paper. Double space between every line on the title page. The title page should contain the number "1" in the upper right corner.

Within the main text of your thesis or dissertation, you may need to organize the text and information beyond the standard blocks of text. You have a couple of options under APA Style. Footnotes give you the option of adding information about an idea in your text without detracting from the text. Headings allow you to organize the text into sections, similar to an outline.

1. APA STYLE FOOTNOTES

APA Style recommends against using footnotes within the paper, because it is difficult for a publishing company to reproduce the superscript numbers used with footnotes. Footnotes are explanatory notes referenced from the main text. If you need to use footnotes, place them at the end of the paper, after the references list. (Some people call these types of citations "endnotes.") Footnotes should appear on a separate page with the word "Footnotes" centered at the top of the page.

It's worth noting that because APA Style allows for in-text citations, you'll rarely need footnotes, unless you need an in-depth explanation of an item within the text. However, keep the footnote to a maximum of a few sentences and do not discuss more than one idea per footnote. If you need a more complex footnote, you'll want to include the information as an appendix page entry or incorporate it into the main text instead.

APA Style allows for two types of footnotes: Content and copyright permission. A content footnote should include information that would be distracting to include within the main text. It's a good way to point the reader toward additional information. A copyright permission footnote shows the reader that you have obtained permission to use a previously published long quote (more than 500 words), table, or figure.

Both types of footnotes require the same type of formatting, as shown in the following example.

Technological advancements tend to spark economic growth worldwide.1

On the footnote page, indent each footnote as a new paragraph and double space throughout.

1 Johnson defines technological advancements in a variety of ways ...

2. APA STYLE HEADINGS

APA Style allows for you to use headings to better organize your paper. You can think of using headings like creating an outline. You can use up to five levels with headings, although the formatting becomes tricky if you go deeper than three levels.

The headings formatting requirements include:

FIRST LEVEL. The first level headings should be centered above their associated text blocks. Use both uppercase and lowercase words within the heading.

SECOND LEVEL. Type the second level heading in all italics, flush left, and with both uppercase and lowercase words.

THIRD LEVEL. The third level heading should look like a sentence at the start of a paragraph, as it's indented, all lowercase words (other than the first word or proper nouns), and ends with a period. It is italicized, however, to set it apart from the main text.

An example of the formatting for the first three levels of headings looks this way.

First Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (flush left)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the third heading.

FOURTH LEVEL. If you need a fourth level heading, you have to rework your previous headings. The second level becomes italicized and centered, while the old second level and old third level become the new third and fourth levels, respectively.

First Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third Level of Heading (flush left)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fourth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the fourth heading.

FIFTH LEVEL. Again, adding a fifth level requires reworking of the other levels, beginning with the first level, which now becomes a centered and all uppercase heading. Every other heading moves down one spot. The old first level heading becomes the new second level, and the others follow suit.

FIRST LEVEL OF HEADING (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Second Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Third Level of Heading (centered)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fourth Level of Heading (flush left)

Main text continues as normal (indented).

Fifth level of heading (indented). Main text should immediately follow the fifth heading.

Finally, keep in mind that very few APA Style papers will require more than two or three levels of headings. Typically, the only types of papers that need four or five levels of headings are those detailing complex scientific experiments.

When compiling your thesis or dissertation, the APA Style guidelines specify certain types of pages, as well as formatting guidelines for those pages. I have included the primary pages you'll need in your manuscript. Always start each of these sections on a new page. Most of them will only require one page.

* ABSTRACT. The second page in your APA style thesis should be the abstract page, which contains a 100- to 150-word summary of your paper. Do not include any of the main text on the abstract page. It will contain the page header, which is a two- or three-word summary of the title, in the upper right corner, just left of page number "2," as the abstract page is always the second page. Do not indent the abstract and limit it to one paragraph. If you use numbers in the abstract, type them as digits, rather than words, unless the number starts a sentence.

* APPENDIX. Use the appendix, which is optional, to describe complex equipment or to present unpublished tests. Each appendix in your APA paper should appear on its own page, and use letters to differentiate each appendix, such as "Appendix A" and "Appendix B." Some papers will not use an appendix page. Any appendix pages belong at the end of the paper.

* AUTHOR NOTE. In the author note page, which is optional, identify the departmental affiliation for the author. You also can include disclaimers, acknowledgements, and, if desired, contact information for the author. If you received funding for this research, identify it on the author note page. Place the author note page after the dedication page. With some instructors and institutions, this page is called the acknowledgments page.

* COPYRIGHT NOTICE. A copyright notice is an optional page in your APA paper; it signifies the paper is copyrighted material. Place a copyright page immediately after the title page. It should include the copyright symbol, the year of publication, the author's name, and "all rights reserved." Center all of the copyright text on the page.

* DEDICATION. A dedication page is an optional page similar to the author note page, and it allows you to dedicate your paper to someone. Place the dedication page after the copyright page. The dedication page does not need to include the word "Dedication" at the top; simply list your dedication in italics. Center it on the page.

* LIST OF TABLES AND LIST OF FIGURES. Only use a list of tables or a list of figures page if you have at least five tables or five figures in your APA paper. Both list pages should appear after the table of contents, with the list of tables page ahead of the list of figures page. List each table or figure with the appropriate title and page number, connected by a leader. Right-align the page number and left-align the title of each table or figure.

* MAIN TEXT. The main text always begins on page 3. Center the complete title above the beginning of the main text.

* REFERENCE LIST. Include your reference list after the main text page and ahead of the appendix page. The reference list page should include all works that you've cited in your paper, listed alphabetically. Rules for listing references under APA Style are specific, depending on the type of work, and you need to follow them closely. (We'll discuss them in another article.)

* TABLE OF CONTENTS. The table of contents page should appear after the abstract page. It is an organized listing of the contents of the paper, providing page numbers to the various sections and headings in the paper. The reader can use the table of contents to jump to a particular section of the paper. When listing chapter headings in the table of contents, make sure they exactly match the chapter headings in the text. Use a leader to connect the chapter heading or section name (aligned on the left) with the page number (aligned on the right). Type "Table of Contents" centered at the top of the page.

* TITLE. The title page includes more than just the title. In the upper right corner, include the page header and page number "1," as the title page is always the first page. Then center the title on the page. If the title requires more than one line, use double spacing. Include the author's name and the author's educational institution or the author's home city and state.

When writing an APA Style paper, it's required that you properly cite any sources you've used. Citing sources is important for a few reasons. First, it allows instructors to check the accuracy of your research. Second, it gives your readers the opportunity to find additional related information. Most importantly, citing sources gives credit for the research and theories that you're citing to the people who've created them.

Citing sources in APA Style requires two processes. One citation is required at the position in the main text where the cited material appears, called an in-text citation. The other citation occurs at the end of the paper, in a list of all cited works, called a reference list.

In this article, we'll focus on materials you'll need to cite within the main text of the APA style paper.

I. CITING A PRINTED WORK IN APA STYLE

Often times, the type of APA formatting used for an in-text citation of printed material will depend on the structure of the sentence, as shown in these examples.

Citation example A:

Include the names of the author within the sentence, followed by the year of publication inside parentheses.

The study created by Johnson, Smith, & Jones (2003) indicates that technological advancements spur economic growth.

Citation example B:

You can place the names of the authors inside the parentheses with the year of publication, depending on your sentence structure.

Some economists have indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Johnson, Smith, & Jones, 2003).

II. SUBSEQUENT LISTINGS

Once you have listed a printed source and its author(s) in your paper, you sometimes can abbreviate with subsequent in-text citations of the same work. As shown in these examples, the number of authors determines whether an abbreviation is appropriate.

One or two authors:

On subsequent references, list it as you did the first time, with one or both authors' names and the year of publication.

Additionally, the Johnson & Jones (2003) study indicates ...

Three or more authors:

On subsequent references, you only need to list the first author, followed by "et al." before the year of publication.

Additionally, the Johnson et al. (2003) study indicates ...

III. SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

With published works, figuring out the authors' names and the year of publication is a fairly easy process. With some sources, creating the proper in-text APA citation can be a little more difficult.

For example, a Web page might not readily include an author's name. If one isn't available, you can use an editor's name, simply listing it as you listed the author's name in the examples shown earlier.

If no author's name or editor's name is available, just list the name of the organization or institution that's associated with the Web site, as shown in the following example.

An economic organization's study has indicated that technological advancements spur economic growth (Worldwide Economists Group, 2006).

You also can use the title of a Web page or publication with the in-text citation, if no author is listed. Remember, with an in-text citation, you're simply trying to ensure that those who read your paper can easily find the full listing of the source in the reference list at the end of the paper.

IV. Quotations

When quoting source material directly within your text, use the same in-text citation formatting we've already described, along with a little additional information.

Short quotations:

For any quotation less than 40 words in length, use quotation marks around the quotation, followed by the page number of the reference.

According to Johnson (2003), "Spending tax dollars on technological advancements spurs growth in the local economy" (p. 43).

Long quotations:

Follow the same APA format for in-text citations, including the page number(s), for a long quotation of more than 40 words. However, you'll want to create a special block of text for the long quotation by indenting about one-half inch from the left margin for all lines of the quotation. Return to the normal left margin after reaching the end of the quotation block. Do not use quotation marks with this long quotation block, and double space throughout the block.

V. MORE INFORMATION

Keep in mind that APA Style says that you should always use past tense or present perfect tense when describing research that requires an in-text citation.

Finally, if you have a particularly tricky source to cite within your text that isn't covered here, you can find the answer in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which is the ultimate resource for APA Style.

Writing that first thesis or dissertation can be a daunting task on its own. Throw in a need for APA Style guidelines in the paper, and it can be downright intimidating for the student who has never used APA Style in the past.

However, following APA Style doesn't have to be a chore that takes all of the enjoyment out of your writing. A large portion of following APA Style involves common sense writing rules. Dozens of other APA resources can help you with the rest. This set of articles will spell out many aspects of using APA Style.

I. APA STYLE'S ORIGINATION

APA is short for the American Psychological Association. The APA came up with APA Style as a format for its members to follow as they wrote books and journals for the APA to publish. The initial APA Style guidelines appeared in a magazine article in 1929. The first formal APA Style book appeared in 1952.

The format quickly grew in popularity, expanding well beyond APA members. Many educational institutions use APA Style as a guideline for students writing a formal paper, such as a thesis or dissertation.

II. WHAT APA STYLE COVERS

By using APA Style, the student has a comprehensive guideline for formatting all aspects of the paper. For example, APA Style provides rules for the type and size of font to be used, the margins on the paper, and use of punctuation. APA Style also provides rules for citing references, presenting figures or illustrations, and creating tables. Essentially, APA Style rules cover every aspect of the paper that you will be writing.

The APA Style rules have evolved over the years, making subtle changes. Sometimes, you may have an instructor who prefers an old rule and will ask you to break away from the APA Style on that particular rule. Other instructors allow for a few exceptions to APA Style, especially those that make the paper easier to read, such as combining the abstract and title pages.

However, if you plan to submit your thesis or dissertation for publication, you'll want to follow the APA Style precisely.

III. HOW TO START AN APA STYLE PAPER

Using a word processor and a computer makes applying APA Style far easier than it used to be with a typewriter. If you need to add a footnote or insert a quotation at the last minute, it's easy to do with a word processing program, such as MS-WORD.

When writing your paper using APA Style, you start with a title page that contains the title, your name, and your school. The second page is the abstract page, which contains a short description of your paper. The main text begins on the third page. At the end, you'll list all of the sources you used with your paper in the references section.

During your research, as you find sources to use in your paper, you will want to make sure you have the APA Style guidelines handy, ensuring that you collect all of the necessary information about each source. Different types of sources (such as books, reports, and papers) require different types of documentation in APA Style, but the information you'll typically need includes:

* Title of book or article or report
* Author name or names
* Date of publication or creation or retrieval
* Name of publication
* Publishing house or company
* Pages or chapters used as a source
* Short description of source's origination, if necessary, such as a Web site or a conference

Obviously, some citations will not have every piece of information listed above. When collecting information on your sources, a good rule of thumb to follow is: Collect at least as much information as you'd need to tell someone else how to find the exact piece of information you used as a resource in your paper. Take your time to ensure you have all of the information to properly cite the source.

IV. FINDING MORE ANSWERS

If you have specific questions regarding APA Style, the ultimate resource is The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, which is available for about $40. The fifth edition is the current edition. You also can visit the APAStyle (dot) org Web site for some tips and additional information for using APA Style with your paper.

For additional help, your instructor might have some tips or guidelines. Your university library likely has dozens of books devoted to APA Style guidelines. If all else fails, Google can provide dozens of Web sites that provide tips for correctly applying APA Style rules in your paper.

With so many APA Style resources available, you can stop worrying about APA Style and place all of your focus where it belongs: On the substance of your thesis or dissertation.

Writing in APA Style can be an intimidating task, especially if you've never written a formal research paper previously. APA Style has many rules, guidelines, and formatting requirements for your paper that it can be overwhelming to think about all of the opportunities for mistakes.

However, following APA Style is not as difficult as it sounds. As with almost any educational endeavor, hurrying unnecessarily will lead to mistakes, so take your time to ensure correct formatting. Following the APA Style tips listed here will help, too.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Try to avoid writing in passive voice. APA Style requires active voice, and some instructors will downgrade your paper if you use a lot of passive voice. With active voice, the subject of the sentence does something. With passive voice, the subject of the sentence has something done to it. Passive voice often uses the word "by."

FOCUS ON THE WRITING.

There's no question that following APA Style closely is an important part of creating a successful paper. However, the tight rules and guidelines that govern APA Style should not be your primary focus. Instead, focus on the content of your paper and focus on the writing. If the content of your paper is lacking, it won't matter to your instructor how closely your paper follows APA Style.

LANGUAGE TIPS.

When writing your APA Style paper, avoid using contractions: "Can't" should be "cannot," and "it's" should be "it is." Do not use slang language. Clear, concise language is best. Never write in the first person, either.

PLAGIARISM PROBLEMS.

Obviously, you don't want to plagiarize any part of your paper. To make sure you don't inadvertently commit plagiarism, cite all of your sources. If you're unsure whether to use an in-text citation for a source, you probably should use it. It's better to be safe than sorry when citing sources.

PROOFREAD A FEW TIMES.

You'd be surprised how often a simple mistake sneaks into formal papers because the author didn't take the time to proofread more than once. Proofreading should not be done as a last-minute item; it should be done a few times before the paper is completed. In fact, it's best to set the paper aside for a couple of days between proofreading sessions. If you can take a break from the paper for a couple of days, you'll be surprised how much better your proofreading sessions go with a fresh look at the paper, rather than a harried, last-minute look.

PROOFREAD SOME MORE.

Depending on the importance of the paper, you may want to hire someone to do some additional proofreading for you. Again, having a fresh look at the paper, this time from a different pair of eyes, will only help improve your paper.

REFERENCE LIST.

As you perform the research for your paper, it's important to keep the reference list in the back of your mind. When you pull information from sources, make sure that you collect extensive information about each source. Having a comprehensive list is good for two reasons. First, you must have the information for the reference list, so collecting it as you use each source will save you time when compiling the reference list later. Second, if you need to revisit a particular source to find more information for your paper, you'll have very few problems finding it again with a comprehensive source list.

REPEATABLE RULES.

Once you've mastered a few of the APA Style guidelines, you'll repeat them throughout your paper, making your job easier. This is especially true with citing sources, either inside the main text or on the references list page. Even though there are subtle, slight differences in formatting the citations, depending on the type of source, most the formatting is similar.

YOUR INSTRUCTOR KNOWS BEST.

Finally, if you encounter a dilemma where the instructions for your paper that your instructor provided contradict APA Style guidelines and rules, go with your instructor's preferences. Some APA Style rules are modifiable, giving your instructor some latitude. In addition, because APA Style rules have evolved over the years, you might have an instructor who prefers an old rule to a new rule.

If you encounter a contradiction, just remember this: The last time I checked, the latest edition of the APA Style Manual had never graded a paper. Follow the desires of the person who will be grading the paper.