The student writing at the university level is typically a four-phase cycle, A professor issues a set of instructions for a writing assignment, A student constructs a document, The professor reviews and comments upon the document and The professor returns the document to the student. This writing workflow is computerized, That is, most university students write their many required reports on word processors. Then they convert the reports to paper so that a professor can read them and provide feedback in the form of scribbled marginal and interlinear comments.

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Good writing is mainly based on close interrelation writer-reader where reader is to be the primary person. This reader-oriented approach breaks down some strict rules which usually cut down writer's freedom and fresh ideas in writing. However, the general knowledge of structure, content, style, referencing, spelling and grammar are still very important.

An essay content is the primary step to start writing. Usually work comprises ideas statement, problem question and its definition and author's arguments for this question. The statement and problem mainly come from available resources: books, reviews, journals, magazines which can be easily found in libraries and electronic sources. When a writer gathers all needed materials his next step is to construct an appropriate scheme which is usually called a plan or outlines. Both composing and structure are aimed to produce qualitative link of chains which are closely connected and reflect the initial statement. Thus, essay structure consists of three parts: introduction (beginning), body (middle) and conclusion (end) which must have smooth transitions between each other.

Introduction must clearly show the subject and its back ground in order to explain a reader what you are going to write about. Sometimes questions are of great help to set up your subject clearly. Many instructions recommend such sort of questions: What is the important thing for your reader to consider? What can your reader learn? According to the reader-oriented viewpoint it is necessary to explain all the terms that a writer is going to use because some of them are difficult to understand by a reader. The subject appointed in introduction must be developed in the main part - body.

The classic guides demand three paragraphs of the body. This number should vary because paragraph is not a structural part but a writer's completed thought which is included into the whole subject. The aim to complete your whole idea or statement may demand different sizes and even numbers of paragraphs. Thus, the only thing that should not be neglected is a sentences completion and logic interaction between them. One of the most valuable and reliable things to not loose logic link is avoiding long and complicated sentences.

Conclusions are aimed to: 1) summarize all previous information; 2) sum up and point out the most important things; 3) introduce a new question or idea for further researches. Successful combination of summary and closure with new suggestions is considered to be 'the very best endings'. Summarizing helps to emphasize the most important argument and therefore, to identify gaps or uncertain arguments in the subject. This identification of problem opens new direction for further research. The new fresh ideas can be expressed by questions which a writer sets in the last sentences of his work.

The students' essays are usually assigned with necessary styles. They can be MLA, Harvard, APA or any other styles which are widely used in modern writing. They vary in citation and reference presentation but these differences are easily available in Internet resources. Different styles and assignments can bring some variations into structure, grammar usage, syntax and morphological features. The only thing that should not be omitted is the whole picture of completed and easy understandable work.

It is a very good idea to remind your reader why you write this work and what it is about. Although the statement remains the same, the conclusion should develop it. According to the body content, which can approve or deny the statement in the introduction, the conclusion statement either confirms or opposes to the introduction. Certainly, conclusion, which is contradictory to introduction, draws larger interest because of intrigue. This intrigue encourages reader and involves him in further research.








A master's thesis in the United States is conferred on students who have gone beyond the requirements of an undergraduate course and demonstrated scholarship and advanced knowledge of their field of academic study. Whether the degree is a Master of Arts or a Master of Science, one of the ways candidates are often expected to show their understanding of the subject matter is by submitting a thesis or dissertation.

Every university or college, and within those institutions every faculty, has its own specific criteria for assessing and passing - or failing - master thesis. Length, format and content may vary, within certain general limits; but the keys to success in creating a master's thesis remain more or less consistent.

The key words to bear in mind are content, citations and style. All are equally important: the thesis must express the candidate's understanding of the subject matter; must do so with precision and clarity; and must also do so in the format required, first by the candidate's individual supervisor, and ultimately by the examiners. Let's look at these in turn.

First, content. A master's candidate, having chosen a topic within the applicable field of study, usually with the advice of his or her individual supervisor, needs to develop relevant, engaging and novel content with respect to that topic. Different fields of study have different requirements. Candidates in some fields will need to conduct original research - surveys, interviews, field research or finding and reading original documents. In other fields it will be enough to develop and express original and interesting views on relevant material. In almost every case, the candidate will need to demonstrate familiarity with existing opinions on the same topic - usually through what is called a literature review: a referenced summary of what other scholars have said about the topic of the thesis.

It is important to gather as much information and material as possible. Whatever the required length of the thesis (and this can vary greatly), it is much easier to for a candidate to produce several thousand words when there is plenty of information to convey. As for citations, best practice is carefully to note citations to books, papers, articles or websites while developing the material for the thesis. Much better to pause and make a careful record of author, source, date, and any other necessary information while you are working on it, than go back and try to recover it later. It is easy to underestimate the amount of time required to compose an adequate reference section for the thesis, and much effort is saved by capturing the data during the research phase.

It is also very easy to underestimate the time and effort involved in conforming the text of the thesis to the specific demands of the examiners. Institutions have different requirements as to style - Chicago, for example, of APA - and in every case there are very precise expectations, not only as to formatting of pages and text, but also with respect to citations. Smart candidates know the details in advance, and are always conforming their writing and their references to what the end product requires. This approach saves an enormous amount of time.

Content, citations and style. Successful completion of a master's thesis depends on developing something to say, while constantly paying attention to how it will be said.





Mike Shane is a self-made entrepreneur, a well known writer and consultant. His area of writing includes master thesis, dissertations, articles, and books. Every year he publishes a list of master's thesis, books and dissertations.




Say you've prepared your e-learning content and are ready to upload it to an LMS for in-house distribution or outside syndication. To ensure its success on the marketplace or within your organization, follow a few simple guidelines.

Strong e-learning material is based on your own subject matter expertise and personal experience. And since there are an endless variety of courseware subjects, learners and contexts, not every guideline will necessarily apply to your LMS course. That said, one crucial element of a successful e-learning course is early communication with students. This includes pre-course basic training on how to use the LMS and other online tools, as well as how to navigate the online course itself. If collaborative tools like wikis or discussion boards are involved, clearly indicate how you'd like students to participate.

Guide students in course navigation through the use of videos. Take advantage of the easy-to-use video creation tools that LMSs often offer. Video tours are a great way to walk your students through their new virtual learning environment and make them feel comfortable.

The three basic aspects of communication are speech, gesture, and visuals. The online combination of these three elements helps recreate the natural ways people work in groups when they are physically present together. Utilizing these three elements--particularly the emotional signals of voice and tone--allows you to create a sense of trust and comfort for your students.

Another key to successful communication with students--which will ensure their ease of use and comfort with the online course--is the creation of a course outline or syllabus. A syllabus provides a space for you to break down and explain the course expectations and objectives for learners, and should be presented before any actual learning begins.

Particularly for the comfort of first-time e-learners, it's critical for them to understand as early as possible what to expect from a course.

A syllabus should include a few pieces of information about the online course. It should provide the instructor's email, office and/or phone number; the course date, length, and expected involvement; textbooks and other learning materials required; an outline of the LMS and course format and explanation of navigational features; a description of the course content; an assessment and project schedule; an overall evaluation plan; expectations related to student participation; and an outline of how learners are intended to interact using wikis, discussion boards, and other Web 2.0 tools.

In the course outline, advise learners to familiarize themselves with the LMS and the different kinds of information that can be found in each section of the course. Remind them that they will have to check it regularly for course updates and assignments. Be as specific as possible, describing in full detail the solutions for and consequences of missed classes or homework assignments, how students will be graded, class meeting times (if there are any), and any suggestions you can offer them.

Another useful function of the course outline or syllabus is to outline to learners the plagiarism policy. Although most people vaguely understand that plagiarism is wrong or not allowed, some may still be unsure about what exactly counts as plagiarism. And even though intentional plagiarism is more common, instances of accidental or uninformed plagiarism also occur and with your help, are quite preventable. Many learners are simply may not aware of the correct way to cite the sources they'd like to reference.

Along with your syllabus, attach a citation guide that tells how to cite articles, web pages, books, and other published information. MLA/APA style citation guides are easy to find online.

With the help of videos and a well-developed syllabus, you can help students feel secure and confident navigating their e-learning course and the learning management system. Help them feel at home in their online learning environment by quickly and clearly to establishing the features, scope, and tone of your e-learning course. Doing so will also help prevent any potential confusion or miscommunication, and create a harmonious learning and instructing experience for everyone.





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The question sometimes arises as to how students can fully participate in online classes. This question arises because students do not have a clear picture of the responsibilities of a student in an online program. As a student, you will need a working knowledge of a text editing program and you must learn to navigate the particular digital interface of the college. Often, one text editor, for example, will not work for in one group of online classes but will work in another group of online classes. Given these parameters, it is important for an online student can to lean how to maximize their participation in online classes.

The student will play a dual role in discussion threads. First the student must post an original response to a question or prompt posted by the professor. For example, the instructor might ask: "How does a direct quotation differ from a paraphrase?" Students, in response to the question, post their answer. Then a secondary goal kicks in. The student who is responding changes hats and is called upon to critique the postings of at least two classmates.

The critiques are of two types: mechanics and substantive. To do a thorough job with mechanics, the student must be able to recognize a fragment, run-on, agreement problem, reference, for example. If the student cannot recognize these common errors, they must refer to a grammar program such as OWL, an online writing lab offered by Purdue University. OWL will show them how to recognize common errors and how to correct them. These, then, are some ways of participating fully in an online class.

Fully Participate in Online Classes via Dual Roles in Discussion Threads

Participating fully in online classes requires cognitive reflection on the part of the student. The student must be aware of standard organizational patterns such as classification, cause and effect, comparison-contrast, and argumentation and to apply these modes of organization where appropriate. Moreover, the use of logic and the spotting of logical fallacies are also relevant. These, then, are some ways of participating fully in an online class.

Full participation in online classes is demonstrated through completion of assignments, fulfilling assignments, developing a final research essay and regular postings to the drop box, making sure that the submissions are on time. Keep in mind that the Quizzes are computer scored and timed and must be complete to obtain credit. These, then, are some of the ways students can fully participate in online classes.

Practice Exercises and the Research Paper in Online Classes

When frequent participants do not know, they ask. For example, perhaps you are having difficulty deciding how to document a source using APA style. Instead of guessing or staying confused while trying to decipher your text, you can go directly to your instructor for help. How do you do this? You can use the functions such as Ask the Professor, e-mail, Problems and Solutions, and even in the discussion thread. First, however, be sure to comb the Announcements for postings that might answer your questions. These, then, are some ways of fully participating in online classes.

Finally, the high participator in online classes makes use of the support services offered by the college. For example if you are having personal problems, inquire about free counseling; if financial, there are experts to guide you toward scholarship and loans; if content problems, there are tutors available; if specialized, such as the use of APA, there are experts in formatting waiting to guide you. There are even online libraries that can be accessed with a click of the mouse. There is no reason you cannot become a student who participates fully in online classes.





Michael Greene has taught hundreds of college students in various online degree programs over the past few years. Greene is convinced that it is important for every college student to carefully consider which distance education degree is the best fit.




Education is not only a product of formal learning, but is also created from engagements with others and our own research. Life is a continuous learning experience where new ideas come from articles we read, lectures we hear, or conducting research on the Internet.

If one ever wishes to express these ideas in conjunction with thoughts he/she has developed than one must give credit to the creator of those original ideas. If no acknowledgment is given then the result is plagiarism.

In order to avoid plagiarism one must record where specific information was found. Even though there are various citation styles depending on the type of information researched, every citation requires the same parts: Author, Title, Title of Periodical (if available), Volume (if available), Page(s), and Date. To make it easy, before doing a research paper create an organizational template to copy down this information as research is gathered.

There are various styling formats for work citations. The most common ones are MLA style, APA style, Chicago Manual of Style, and CBE style. One's field of research will often dictate what style is used. Most college research is cited in the MLA Style (Modern Language Association). The American Psychological Association (APA) established its own style. It is mainly used for research in social and behavioral sciences. These sciences include psychology, sociology, anthropology, business, education, etc. The Chicago Manual of Style is commonly used in the publishing industry and may also be referred to as the Turabian style. CBE style is based on the rules set forth by the Council of Biology Editors and is used mainly for science research papers.

When creating a research paper or article one must see the Works Cited page as a part of the paper rather than an addition to it that requires more time and effort. By organizing the citation parts while conducting the research one will save time when it comes to creating the work citations.








Many students underestimate the importance of referencing but from an academic perspective, referencing is vitally important.
The cornerstone of any academic writing be it a term paper, essay, research project or dissertation is the dissemination of ideas.
References, i.e., source material based on the views, opinions and research findings of others provide the conceptual framework necessary to engage in analytical debate.
Imagine you had to write an academic answer to the following question without references.
Criminal profiling is unscientific: discuss
Impossible. However, passionate or valid your personal view on the topic is e.g. "I disagree, I actually think criminal profiling is scientific because..."
I'm afraid from an academic perspective an unsubstantiated personal opinion is not worth the paper it's written on. This is why the convention within academia is to write in the third person?
A key aspect of referencing that students tend to overlook is the fact that they allow the reader to identify, access and use the material themselves.
It also crucial to reference properly so that there can no possible suggestion of plagiarism i.e. taking and using the writings of others and passing it off as ones own. Plagiarism is an extremely serious offence and can result in a student been expelled if found guilty.
When you begin your school, college or University course you should at some point (usually in the first week) be given specific guidelines on the standard referencing style required. In most cases this will be the APA referencing format, although many UK institutions favor the Harvard system.
Make sure you have these guidelines to hand whenever you do any form of academic writing. It's the best form of referencing quality control you can have, so use the guidelines as intended.
Most Common Referencing Mistakes
Without doubt the most common referencing format mistakes relate to the increasing popular practice of obtaining source material via electronic means e.g. the Internet.
Most Internet references will have been accessed via a specific web page, however, remember there are other Internet sources e.g. newsletters, online newspapers, e-books etc.
APA style referencing guidelines suggest that an Internet source should provide a document title or description, a date (either the date of publication or update or the date of retrieval), an Internet address (URL) and Whenever possible, the author(s) of the source material as well.
Number One Referencing Tip
Whenever you do an academic assignment make sure you write down the full reference of each source as you find it. Many students, including myself in the past, fail to do this.
Taking notes from the source for possible inclusion in the written assignment is fine but if you do decide to use the material, you can find yourself wasting hours of your valuable time trying to remember the name of the book you returned to the library etc.
This problem is particularly acute when students are doing a thesis or dissertation, involving literally hundreds of references.
Writing references as you go along may mean You record a host of references that you don't actually end up using, however, the time wasted doing this pales into significance compared with the alternative.
You can get more information on referencing and the best free student resources available on the topic by visiting
http://www.all-about-forensic-psychology.com/apa-referencing.html
Having worked as a lecturer in psychology in the UK, I recently moved to sunny Spain with my family, where I now work as a distance learning tutor and research dissertation supervisor.
Since 2000, I've been involved in collaborative research with teams of forensic scientists in the UK, US and Canada.
To find out more about the fascinating world of forensic psychology visit my website http://www.all-about-forensic-psychology.com.






You are probably concerned with writing according to a particular documentation style, such as the APA writing style, when you write papers. In this day and age, high school students are sometimes asked to write papers, while college students are required to write them for almost all their courses. Writing using a documentation style is required so that the writer can credit his or her sources. This means that some of the ideas, and findings that are not yours should be properly labeled as the original author's. The readers can use these source citations, which point to the original authors and titles for their own research.

The APA (American Psychological Association writing style) was originally created for psychology and some science documentation. However, the APA writing style is now being used by many other disciplines such as medicine, and education. In this writing style, the documentation is very rigorous. It also differs from other styles in in-text citation, which requires all authors and dates to be named in the parenthetical.

I'm not going to attempt to cover all of the specifics of the APA writing style in this article because they would fill a book. Let me give you a few of the most commonly used APA writing style conventions in this article. In the in-text citation of this documentation style, the writer must acknowledge the original author whenever he or she uses that particular author's language. This is usually done by putting the citation information inside a parenthesis.

You have to include the date of the publication in the parentheses when you use the APA writing style. It is also required that you use the author's name in the parentheses, followed by n.d., which means no date if you mention the author's name in your statement and no date is available.

The footnote is also used in a documentation that uses the APA writing style. Footnotes are now used less often although they were the singular way to cite sources fifty years ago. Nevertheless, writers should still know how to use them when assigned to or when asides are too intrusive in the main text.

The end notes are similar to the footnotes. They explain the document further and cite valuable sources. This way the reader can use the writer's paper when he or she begins a research. All notes can be placed on one page at the end of the paper in the APA writing style.

The references page is also an important element in documentation. It is also known as the works cited page or the bibliography. The references page thoroughly records or identifies each and every source that the writer used or quoted in the text. Every entry in this page includes the author, title, place and date of publication. The order of the entries must be alphabetical, and they must be punctuated, indented, and styled according to specific rules.








A number of students get perplexed when it comes to writing their academic papers in a particular referencing style such as APA. High school students are at times asked to write term papers, essays etc, where as college or university students have to indulge in academic writing for all their courses. A referencing style is required in all academic papers for the student to give credit to his sources of information. This means that all the ideas and findings mentioned in the paper which are not yours must be referenced as the original author's work. This also enables readers to use these sources to conduct their own research.

When to Use APA Writing Style? The APA (American Psychological Association) writing style was basically created to cite sources in psychology and certain science documentation. But with time, APA format has started to be used by several others disciplines such as medicine and education. The documentation in this writing style is very rigorous.

Specification It would be just about impossible to cover all the specification of the APA format as it just might fill up a book. A few of the most important specifications of the APA writing style can be mentioned in this article. Those are:

In-Text Citation When using the APA format, in-text citations must be used to credit the original author. Citations are to be put in parenthesis. The name of the author as well as the publication date must be provided in the parenthesis. Mention 'n.d.' if the date of publication is not available.

Footnotes Footnotes are also used in all academic papers that are referenced according to the APA writing style. Footnotes are not commonly used now, but were used as the only citation source a long time back. Still, it is important for writers to know how to use them in case they are required.

Endnotes/Bibliography Endnotes are very similar to footnotes. They are used to provide information about the sources. All of the references must be placed on a page at the end of the paper. The bibliography page is extremely important. It identifies every single source that has been used for the production of the paper. All of the sources included in this page must consist of the author's name, title, place and date of publication. The entries must be put in alphabetical order, must be punctuated, indented, and styled according to specific rules of APA format citation.





Terence Reed is an Academic Writing Specialist, working with Essays Aid to serve a diverse body of students with their term papers.




A writer's style is a distinctive signature that allows an individual to personalize not only the content of his or her message, but also the manner in which the content is received.Famed communications scholar Stuart Hall argues that the nature of communication is such that language is little more than a vehicle for delivering meaning.The words we use to communicate with others represent only a very small part of the meaning that we intend to convey.That is to say, there are a number of ways to tell a story, but the version told with the most enthusiasm and style is the one that becomes most memorable and therefore the most dominant.Communication is more than information exchange, and the manner in which we choose to interact with one another is almost as important as the meaning that is conveyed.

So many different styles exist that when we come to write an essay or document, for example, we are almost using a whole new language.Here are some grammatical differences between MLA and APA:

The Serial Comma:

Whenever you write a list of terms, items or phrases, grammatical guidelines dictate that you must separate each item with a comma.However, in the case of any list, there is inevitably a conjunction separating the final two items, and this comma is often referred to as the "serial comma".The Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines do require the use of a comma before the conjunction and the final term, whereas the Associated Press (AP) guidelines generally omit the serial comma unless the list is excessive, in which case a serial comma should be used to reduce ambiguity.

Bullets:

The American Psychological Association does not use bullets, unless the information traditionally found in a 'bullet' point appears in full sentence format as part of a numbered list.Similarly, the Modern Language Association also discourages bullets that are not numbered with full and complete sentences.MLA and APA styles are typically associated with scholarly work, and abbreviated points do not usually provide the level of detail one would expect from work of this caliber.

Citation:

The Modern Language Association encourages citation in two parts.First is the parenthetical reference, which appears at the end of the sentence in between the last word and the period.Material quoted directly from a secondary source must be identified in this manner, and the author's last number and the corresponding page number upon which the quotation can be found should appear at the end of the sentence:

"... suggesting that every quotation must be properly referenced"

(Author's Last Name, Page Number).

This parenthetical reference must also be accompanied by a full citation that should appear on your Works Cited page, which must accompany your work:

Author, Joe. How to Create a Proper Works Cited Page.London: RoutledgePublishing, 2009.

As demonstrated here, the author's first name appears after the last name, followed by the title of the novel, the publication information and the year the book was published.

Similarly, the American Psychological Association guidelines dictate a two-step citation process.As it is with the MLA style, APA requires that quoted material be accompanied by the author's last name and the page number, but also the year the information was published:

"... suggesting that every quotation must be properly referenced"

(Author's Last Name, Year, Page Number).

Again, this parenthetical reference must be accompanied by a citation that appears on the References page at the back of your paper:

Author, J. (2009) How to Create a Proper Works Cited Page.London: RoutledgePublishing.

Unlike the MLA style, the APA citation format dictates that the year must follow the author's name, and the title must appear in italics as opposed to being underlined.While both formatting styles have similarities, there are a number of differences that can be easily overlooked.It's important to become familiar with one style so that you naturally become more proficient with practice.





With copywriting and editing experience in the advertising industry and currently completing a Doctorate in Communications and Culture from York University, Adam has extensive experience with all forms of writing. He also holds a Master's Degree from Windsor University and an Honors Bachelor Degree from the University of Toronto, both in English Literature and Language. Currently, he is a teaching assistant at Ryerson University in the English Department, and has recently completed a two-year contract as an instructor at the Ryerson University Writing Centre. He is experienced with Style Editing. Adam is an editor at http://www.editingoffice.com




No matter what type of paper you're writing, be it a literature review, research report, summary, or analysis, rest assured that you'll be required to name your sources. There are several different types of resource lists, not to mention a number of different styles for writing entries.
A reference list, also called a list of works cited, is a catalog of all the sources you cited or otherwise referred to in your paper. A citation involves giving another author credit for a quote, idea, finding, or phrase that you use in your paper. You should cite all direct quotes, as well as instances of paraphrasing; original or novel ideas, perspectives, and facts; and research findings. This is necessary so that authors receive due credit for their work. It's also an academic obligation: it provides your readers the opportunity to locate the sources you used, read and interpret the evidence themselves, and perhaps even challenge your conclusions.
In contrast to reference lists, you list all the sources you read in a bibliography. Even if you do not cite the source, it must receive a mention in the bibliography if you used it in any way throughout the research and writing processes. Thus, books and articles you consulted for reference early on must be included in your bibliography, receiving the same attention as those sources you cited extensively.
In addition to various types of resource lists, there are also different styles in which you can compile them. Your professor will tell you whether she wants you to use a reference list or bibliography, along with what style your list should be presented in. This information will most likely be in the assignment itself, so read through your handouts carefully. When in doubt, it's better to ask the professor than guess!
One of the most popular styles is Modern Language Association (MLA) style. Founded in 1883, the MLA is a professional association that promotes the study and teaching of - you guessed it - language and literature. MLA Style is the format recommended for bibliographies by the Association. Along with the styles developed by the University of Chicago Press and the APA, it's one of the "big three" styles. The MLA guidelines are used by more than 125 scholarly journals, newsletters, and magazines, and are quite common in high schools and colleges. You are likely to encounter them at some point in your academic career.
The University of Chicago Press also publishes a style guide, called The Chicago Manual of Style. Now in its 15th edition, the manual explains not only how to document your resources, but also how to deal with copyright issues, design and produce a book, and everything in between. The manual has humble origins, starting out as a sheet of typographical basics in the 1890s, morphing into a short pamphlet first published in 1906, and now weighing in at a hefty 986 pages. Aimed at publishers, editors, and writers, you might have to learn this style if you are majoring communications or related fields.
Also mentioned earlier were the guidelines developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). If you're taking a psychology or other social science course, odds are that you'll be using this style for your reference list. The APA is the largest association of psychologists, with over 150,000 members and 53 divisions. The APA's Publication Manual is a comprehensive resource for both students and professionals who wish to publish their research. Along with guidelines for writing a reference list, the Publication Manual also includes information on how to organize your paper's content; how to express your ideas coherently; ethical standards for reporting research findings; and how to develop and submit a manuscript for publication. If you ever plan on publishing work in psychology, sociology, social work, criminology, nursing, business or economics, you will need to know APA style forwards and backwards!
There are a number of other style guides available; each field prefers a specific style, and many have developed their own guidelines. Thus, you should always double check with your professor to see what style she wants you to use.
Even though the reference list falls at the end of your paper, make no mistake - it's extremely important! Any errors you make could inadvertently deny an author credit for her work. Incorrect citations might make it difficult or impossible for your peers to do their own research on the topic. Failure to properly credit your sources could get you in big trouble, whether it's an intentional omission or not. Compiling the list in the incorrect format, while not as serious as excluding it altogether, may still annoy your professor.
The reference list is more than an afterthought. Afford it as much attention as you do the rest of your paper, and be well on your way to a stellar research report!
Copyright Kelly Garbato, 2005
Kelly Garbato is an author, ePublisher, and small business owner. She recently self-published her first book, "13 Lucky Steps to Writing a Research Paper," now available at Amazon.com (http://www.amazon.com) or through Peedee Publishing (http://www.peedeepublishing.com).
To learn more about the author, visit her web site at http://www.kellygarbato.com.






No matter what type of paper you're writing, be it a literature review, research report, summary, or analysis, rest assured that you'll be required to name your sources. There are several different types of resource lists, not to mention a number of different styles for writing entries.
A reference list, also called a list of works cited, is a catalog of all the sources you cited or otherwise referred to in your paper. A citation involves giving another author credit for a quote, idea, finding, or phrase that you use in your paper. You should cite all direct quotes, as well as instances of paraphrasing; original or novel ideas, perspectives, and facts; and research findings. This is necessary so that authors receive due credit for their work. It's also an academic obligation: it provides your readers the opportunity to locate the sources you used, read and interpret the evidence themselves, and perhaps even challenge your conclusions.
In contrast to reference lists, you list all the sources you read in a bibliography. Even if you do not cite the source, it must receive a mention in the bibliography if you used it in any way throughout the research and writing processes. Thus, books and articles you consulted for reference early on must be included in your bibliography, receiving the same attention as those sources you cited extensively.
In addition to various types of resource lists, there are also different styles in which you can compile them. Your professor will tell you whether she wants you to use a reference list or bibliography, along with what style your list should be presented in. This information will most likely be in the assignment itself, so read through your handouts carefully. When in doubt, it's better to ask the professor than guess!
One of the most popular styles is Modern Language Association (MLA) style. Founded in 1883, the MLA is a professional association that promotes the study and teaching of - you guessed it - language and literature. MLA Style is the format recommended for bibliographies by the Association. Along with the styles developed by the University of Chicago Press and the APA, it's one of the "big three" styles. The MLA guidelines are used by more than 125 scholarly journals, newsletters, and magazines, and are quite common in high schools and colleges. You are likely to encounter them at some point in your academic career.
The University of Chicago Press also publishes a style guide, called The Chicago Manual of Style. Now in its 15th edition, the manual explains not only how to document your resources, but also how to deal with copyright issues, design and produce a book, and everything in between. The manual has humble origins, starting out as a sheet of typographical basics in the 1890s, morphing into a short pamphlet first published in 1906, and now weighing in at a hefty 986 pages. Aimed at publishers, editors, and writers, you might have to learn this style if you are majoring communications or related fields.
Also mentioned earlier were the guidelines developed by the American Psychological Association (APA). If you're taking a psychology or other social science course, odds are that you'll be using this style for your reference list. The APA is the largest association of psychologists, with over 150,000 members and 53 divisions. The APA's Publication Manual is a comprehensive resource for both students and professionals who wish to publish their research. Along with guidelines for writing a reference list, the Publication Manual also includes information on how to organize your paper's content; how to express your ideas coherently; ethical standards for reporting research findings; and how to develop and submit a manuscript for publication. If you ever plan on publishing work in psychology, sociology, social work, criminology, nursing, business or economics, you will need to know APA style forwards and backwards!
There are a number of other style guides available; each field prefers a specific style, and many have developed their own guidelines. Thus, you should always double check with your professor to see what style she wants you to use.
Even though the reference list falls at the end of your paper, make no mistake - it's extremely important! Any errors you make could inadvertently deny an author credit for her work. Incorrect citations might make it difficult or impossible for your peers to do their own research on the topic. Failure to properly credit your sources could get you in big trouble, whether it's an intentional omission or not. Compiling the list in the incorrect format, while not as serious as excluding it altogether, may still annoy your professor.
The reference list is more than an afterthought. Afford it as much attention as you do the rest of your paper, and be well on your way to a stellar research report!
Copyright Kelly Garbato, 2005
Kelly Garbato is an author, ePublisher, and small business owner. She recently self-published her first book, "13 Lucky Steps to Writing a Research Paper," now available at Amazon.com (http://www.amazon.com) or through Peedee Publishing (http://www.peedeepublishing.com).
To learn more about the author, visit her web site at http://www.kellygarbato.com.






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